Language or Languages Spoken/Written

Ethiopia has an estimated 100 distinguishable ethnolinguistic entities, some speaking the same language. At least seventy languages are spoken as mother tongues. Oromo (Oromiffa) is the largest group consisting of about 40% of the total population. Roughly 30% of the total population consists of the Amhara (Amharic), whose native tongue is the official language of Ethiopia. The Tigray, speaking Tigrinya, constitute 12% to 15% of total population. A large number of smaller groups include Somali, Gurage, Awi, Afar, Welamo, Sidama, and Beja. English is the second official language of Ethiopia and is understood in most towns and among the educated sector of the population.

Religion(s) and Religious Influences in Life and Business

Ethiopia's 1955 constitution stated, "The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, founded in the fourth century on the doctrines of Saint Mark, is the established church of the Empire and is, as such, supported by the state." The church was the bulwark of the state and the monarchy and became an element in the ethnic identity of the dominant Amhara and Tigray peoples. By contrast, Islam spread among ethnically diverse and geographically dispersed groups at different times and therefore failed to provide the same degree of political unity to its adherents. Beliefs and rituals varied widely, but fear of the evil eye, for example, was widespread among followers of all religions. Officially, the imperial regime tolerated Muslims (the government retained Muslim courts, which dealt with family and personal law according to Islamic law). However, the imperial authorities gradually took over Muslim schools and discouraged the teaching of Arabic. Additionally, the behavior of Amhara administrators in local communities and the general pattern of Christian dominance tended to alienate Muslims. The revolution brought a major change in the official status of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and other religions. In 1975, the Mengistu regime disestablished the church, which was a substantial landholder during the imperial era, and early the next year removed its patriarch. All religions were declared equal, and a number of Muslim holy days became official holidays in addition to the Christian holidays already honored. Today, approximately 50% of the population are Ethiopian Orthodox which is identified mainly with Amhara and Tigray peoples but accepted by other groups as well. Approximately 2% are Protestant and Roman Catholic combined. Lastly, approximately 40% are adherents of Islam. The remainder of the population practice various indigenous religions.

Customs/Traditions/Manners/Habits:

Culture: The most significant area of Ethiopian culture is in the field of literature, represented predominantly by translations from ancient Greek, Arabic, and other languages into the ancient Geez and modern Amharic. Most of the works are theological or mythological in nature. Secular literature is largely confined to history. Ecclesiastical architecture is relatively rich because of the early advent of Christianity in the country. Such structures and their frescoes usually show both Byzantine and Coptic influences. Of the folkcraft, silversmithing is remarkable for the imagination and the skill it entails.

Family: Ethiopian familes are very strong, tending to be large with the work divided among mothers, fathers and children. While the fathers are tending the fields, the women are working in their home compounds making nearly all the food and clothing for their families. The Ethiopian extended family exemplifies a deep significance and emotional closeness and importance of the group as opposed to individualism. In some cities or provinces in Ethiopia it may be more common for women to participate in the paid work force than others. Servants and extended family are used to look after children. Many people live in family compounds on the land they work rather than in large villages. People may also belong to larger social groups which have particular significance for ceremonies and rituals associated with marriage and burial. Weddings and funerals are significant ceremonies with large numbers of guests and much food and drink provided.

Food: Ethiopian food is the ultimate in spicy cookery, not only because the food is hot, but also because of the abundance of spices used. Since the 1400's, traders have introduced some non-indigenous ingredients that have added to what we now know of as authentic Ethiopian cuisine. From Portugal came chile peppers, and from the Orient, ginger. India too introduced exotic spices to Ethiopian cuisine.

Although complex in nature, Ethiopian cuisine is simple to prepare. Many of the traditional dishes are stews, one-pot-meals. Berbere, a red paste made up of a multitude of spices and herbs, is a necessary element of Ethiopian cooking. Another important ingredient is butter that has been flavored with onions, garlic, ginger, and spices called niter kebbeh. Wat -- which means stew -- is the traditional Ethiopian dish. Wat can be prepared with chicken (doro) or beef (sik sik). It can also be vegetarian or even contain fish. Wat is a rich red stew stained by paprika that is fiery hot. Chicken wat also contains hard boiled eggs which impart the powerful wat color and flavors. Traditional bread, called injera, is used in place of utensils. Injera is a thin but spongy flatbread as large as a tabletop. It is made from locally grown teff -- the smallest grain in existence. Ground teff is mixed with water and allowed to ferment, then cooked as you would pancake batter over flat clay griddles. Legumes form an integral part of the vegetarian meal. Common legumes include lentils and chick peas. The cooked legumes can be eaten as salads, seasoned with chilies and ginger. Or dried legumes can be ground into flour and used as the base of vegetarian fritters.

Ethiopian drinks are made from local ingredients. Tej is an ancient honey-based wine that often initiates a meal. Talla is a beer made from local grain that often accompanies a snack of nuts or crackers. Lastly, coffee finishes off a traditional meal, sweetened with honey.

Coffee Ceremony

Coffee is Ethiopia's gift to the world. Legend has it that a young Abyssinian shepherd noticed to his amazement that his goats pranced in an unusually frisky manner after chewing bright red berries from a tree. The shepherd too tried the berries and greatly enjoyed their stimulating effect. A monk passed by and observed the boy in that invigorated state and decided to try the berries for himself. Needless to say, he felt quite alert during night prayers. Soon the news spread and all the monks in the area were chewing the berries before their nightly supplications.

There is a consensus among historians and botanists that coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia. Etymologists interpret "COFFEE" as a derivative of the province of Kaffa where it still grows wild. From Ethiopia, coffee spread to Arabia, India, Ceylon, Java, Brazil, Colombia and then back to African countries such as Kenya and Tanzania. Some scholars have found enough facts to prove that the beverage was known in Ethiopia since ancient times.

Coffee still plays an integral role in Ethiopia's daily life and economic well being. It is the country's main export and in all U.S. coffee shops we can enjoy Ethiopian blends from Sidamo, Harar, and Yirga Chafee. It is in the experience of the coffee ceremony, however, that we realize the real power of Ethiopian coffee. One, two and sometimes three times a day, the mother of the Ethiopian household invites the family and neighbors for "buna" (coffee). This is a special time when people are bound together and transcend their daily life. A colorful rug or mat is spread on the floor of the home delineating the sacred space for this ritual. Fresh long green grass called "goosgwaze" and flowers reminding us of our connection to nature and the earth are strewn over the mat. The finely crafted "rekebot" (coffee cup stand) eagerly supports the little handleless cups, "sini", patiently waiting to be filled with the freshly brewed coffee. This ceremony generally lasts from 1 to 2 hours. First the green beans must be roasted either over an open fire or on a small charcoal burner. Each crackle is a bean opening itself up to release its rich provocative essence to tantalize our senses. When the beans have been roasted precisely to the right color, the mother moves around the room with the "baret metad" (the roaster), inviting guests to gently coax the smoke towards themselves with their hands and become one with its enticing aroma. The beans are then crushed with "mukecha" and "zenzena"( mortar and pestal) into fine grains ready to be sacrificed in the boiling water of the "jebena", the black clay coffee pot. Occasionally, a pinch of cinnamon, cloves or cardamom will be added to produce a delightful subtle flavor. At the right boiling point, the pot is taken from the heat and placed in the "matot" (its holder) allowing the grounds to settle. "Itan" (incense) is placed on the "girgira" (little clay holder) supporting a live red hot coal. Permeating the entire room and our senses , this holy smell transports guests into a deeper realm of being. In some areas of Ethiopia, it is believed that the smoke of the incense will carry out any bad spirits that are in the home. "Yebuna kourse" (popcorn or bread) is prepared to be passed with the coffee. The youngest child is summoned to stand ready to bring a cup of coffee to the eldest in the room as well as to all others, thus connecting all generations. Gracefully pouring a thin golden stream of coffee into each little cup from a height of one foot without an interruption requires years of practice. If the cups are placed properly when the pouring commences, even they will ring overjoyed in being filled with this heady elixir. Sugar may be added or in the countryside, salt. Holding the little heated cup requires finger dexterity and reminds viewers of the Ethiopia proverb, "Coffee and love taste best when hot." The atmosphere of the coffee ceremony moves guests to share their thoughts and feelings as well as concerns for the family, neighborhood gossip and community events with those present. A real warm human binding occurs that runs deeply throughout Ethiopian society. Transformation of the spirit takes place during the coffee ceremony.

Aesthetics:African aesthetics generally has a moral basis. This indicated by the fact that in many African languages the same word means "beautiful" and "good". This is consistent with the use and meaning of African art that it should be both beautiful and good, because it is intended not only to please the eye but to uphold moral values. The ethical and religious basis of African art may explain why the principal subject is the human figure; African art often appears in ritual contexts that deal with the vital moral and spiritual concerns of the human condition.

Social Behavior: Handshaking is most appropriate for males and females when meeting strangers. If the same people meet more than once a day, it is customary to shake hands at each meeting. It is polite to shake both hands of elders. Friends usually greet each other with a kiss three times on opposite cheeks. Closest neighboring people get together for a coffee, at least once a day.

Class: Social definitions based on wealth, class, and power have always been present in Ethiopia, but this has begun to change with education and urbanization. Social stratification is related to the status given to various occupations and wealth. Traditionally the most preferred occupations have been those in government, the military, the clergy and farming. Occupations such as metal working, weaving, tanning, and pottery, have traditionally been despised. Family names are used for identification and record purposes. Children take their father's names as their second name. When girls marry they change titles, but keep their father's names.

Gender Issues: Men and women have distinct roles in Ethiopia. Traditionally, men are responsible for providing for the family and handling family contact with the world outside the home. Women's roles are to clean the house and take care of the children. Education levels and professional attainment of women, however, will vary from province to province, and between cultural groups. Education is mainly dependent on proximity to towns or cities, social class, economic situation and cultural and local norms. In cases of occupation women take secretarial, typing or nursing, etc., jobs whereas men take managerial, clerical, engineering or mechanical, etc., jobs.

Courtship and Marriage: Based on interviews, relationships between young men and women are generally conducted in secret, until they are ready for marriage. Sex is a taboo subject and a women's virginity is very highly valued, with the whole family being shamed if she is not a virgin at marriage. To enforce this value, female circumcision is still practiced by some groups, although there have been successful attempts in different areas to remove the practice. Divorce is possible, however, resolution is attempted first. Inter-religious marriage is not usually tolerated. In the past, arranged marriages were common. While this is not usually practiced now, it is important to marry someone the family approves of. Among the Muslim communities, husbands may have more than one wife and large numbers of children are traditionally considered to be a sign of status. In Muslim marriages in the east of Ethiopia women own nothing and do not have protection of their rights, whereas in Muslim marriage in the north, women are considered equal; so the position of women is a matter of culture as well as religion. If the husbund of a Muslim woman dies, it is the responsibility of the husband's brother to take care of the wife and family and possibly marry the widow.

Clothing: Ethiopian women traditionally wear white dresses, while men wear white tunics over riding pants. A large white cloth worn by both men and women over their shoulders is the distinctive part of Amharic and Tigrayan dress which is usually worn on special occasions. A heavy cloth called gabby is worn for warmth whereas a light cloth known as gauz (natella) is worn for dress occasions. The natella usually has a very colorful border on it, which is also found near the bottom hem of the women's dress. A wide variety of clothing can be seen in Ethiopia ranging from loin clothes to the latest fashion.

Business Culture - Protocols, Greetings, etc.

People usually greet each other by bowing heads. A greeting in Ethiopia can be a long and lively process-the longer the greeting, the closer the friends. Another custom is to kiss the cheeks of your friend three times when you greet them.

Business persons should wear suits and ties for business visits. English is widely used for trade purposes but Italian and French are also useful. Nonetheless, knowledge of a few words of Amharic will be appreciated. Some of the more useful are Tena Yistillign - 'Hello'; Ishi - 'Yes'; Yellem - 'No'; and Sint new - 'How much is this?' Normal courtesies should be observed and business cards can be used. Best months for business visits are October to May. Office hours: 0800-1200 and 1300-1700 Monday to Friday.

The Ethiopian calendar year consists of 365 days and is divided into twelve months of thirty days each plus one additional month of five days (six in leap years). Ethiopian New Year's falls on September 11 and ends the following September 10, according to the Gregorian (Western) calendar. From September 11 to December 31, the Ethiopian year runs seven years behind the Gregorian year; thereafter, the difference is eight years. Hence, the Ethiopian year 1983 began on September 11, 1990, according to the Gregorian calendar, and ended on September 10, 1991. This discrepancy results from differences between the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church as to the date of the creation of the world.